An heuristic uncertainty directed field sampling design for digital soil mapping

- The paper presented an effective and stepwise uncertainty directed sampling scheme.
- The sampling scheme could integrate the sparse and ad hoc legacy samples.
- The sampling scheme could provide the order of additional samples.

Legacy samples are a valuable data source for digital soil mapping. However, these sample sets are often small in size and ad hoc in spatial distribution. Constrained by the limited representativeness of such a sample set, the obtained soil maps are often incomplete in spatial coverage with “gaps” at the locations which cannot be well represented by these samples. The maps may also contain areas of high prediction uncertainty. In order to extend the predicted area and reduce prediction uncertainty, additional samples are needed. This paper presents a sampling design based on prediction uncertainty to select samples which will effectively complement the sparse and ad hoc samples, and maximize the spatial coverage of prediction and minimize prediction uncertainty. A case study in China shows that this sampling scheme was effective in achieving these goals. Compared with stratified random sampling scheme, when the number of additional samples is the same, the produced map using uncertainty directed samples has larger predicted area, and the accuracy of the produced map is higher than that of the maps using stratified random samples. The finding of this study suggests that prediction uncertainty is a useful indicator to aid field sample selection and to complement the legacy data. Furthermore, the mapping accuracy produced using this method can be quantitatively related to the number of additional samples needed which opens a new horizon for digital soil mapping.