Endoplasmic reticulum stress as a pro-fibrotic stimulus

► ER stress and the unfolded protein response contribute tofibrotic remodeling. ► ER stress enhances the susceptibility of epithelial cells to pro-fibrotic stimuli. ► ER stress facilitates fibrosis by promoting apoptosis, inflammation, and/or EMT. ► Genetic mutations, viruses, and environmental exposures may cause ER stress in vivo.