Sex- and gender-related differences in the neurobiology of drug abuse

In summary, difficulties in conducting studies with females can be overcome with careful planning, time and additional expense. Using controlled laboratory studies, important pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic differences in drug effects may modulate male/female expectations about psychoactive drug effects and ultimately play a role in the etiology of drug abuse, dependence and how treatment programs should be structured. Finally, the application of new brain imaging techniques has the potential to reveal the mechanism of these sex-related differences.