Pathological changes on woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) bones: Holes, hollows and other minor changes in the spinous processes of vertebrae

Pathological change on mammoth bones is a difficult and scarcely explored subject. Among the most characteristic pathologies of mammoths are the holes and hollows in the spinous processes of vertebrae. Although they are rarely mentioned in the literature, they appear often in bone materials. Possible causes for these changes previously proposed by other authors include: genetic trait, abnormal ossification, and Kashin-Beck disease. None of these propositions have been explored or explained more widely.The present study was conducted on mammoth bones from some of the biggest mammoth bone assemblages in Central Europe: Kraków Spadzista, Milovice I, and Předmostí. They are located close to archaeological sites related to Gravettian culture. This vast amount of material enabled us to track the way this kind of mammoth bone pathology not only developed but also healed. For the first time, the changes in the spinous processes of mammoth vertebrae have been divided into classes indicating the stages of their development. The plausible etiology of the holes and hollows as well as other minor changes (before now not even mentioned in the literature) in mammoth vertebrae spinous processes is explained. The main cause seems to be the disorder of calcium and phosphate metabolism. It is suggested that the short-term climate changes had a significant impact on mammoth condition and on this kind of bone changes. The bone changes connected with metabolism disorder point to the decreased physical condition of the animals. Therefore another important question arises – how did the Gravettian hunters pick their prey? Did they choose sick individuals?