Radiogenic isotopes, ore deposits and metallogenic terranes: Novel approaches based on regional isotopic maps and the mineral systems concept

Radiogenic isotopes have long been used in mineralisation studies, not just for geochronological determinations of mineralising events but also as tracers, providing, for example, information on the source of metals. It was also evident early on that consideration of isotopic data on a regional scale could be used to assist with metallogenic interpretation, including identification of metallogenic terranes. The large amounts of isotopic (and other) data available today, in combination with readily available graphical software, have made possible construction of isotopic maps, using various isotopic variables, at regional to continental scales, allowing for metallogenic interpretation over similarly large regions. Such interpretation has been driven largely by empiricism, but increasingly with a mineral systems approach, recognising that mineral deposits, although geographically small in extent, are the result of geological processes that occur at a variety of scales.This review looks at what radiogenic isotopes can tell us about different mineral systems, from camp- to craton-scale. Examples include identifying lithospheric/crustal architecture and its importance in controlling the locations of mineralisation, the identification of metallogenic terranes and/or favourable geodynamic environments on the basis of their isotopic signatures, and using juvenile isotopic signatures of intrusives to identify metallogenically important rock types. The review concentrates on the Sm–Nd system using felsic igneous rocks and the U–Th–Pb system using galena, Pb-rich ores and other rocks. The Sm–Nd system can be used to effectively ‘see’ through many crustal processes to provide information on the nature of the source of the rocks. For voluminous rocks such as granites this provides a potentially powerful proxy in constraining the nature of the various crustal blocks the granites occur within. In contrast, Pb isotopic data from galena and Pb-rich associated ores provide a more direct link to mineralisation, and the two systems (Pb and Nd) can be used in conjunction to investigate links between mineralisation and crustal domains.In this contribution we document: the more general principles of radiogenic isotopes; the identification of time-independent isotopic parameters; the use of such variable to generate isotopic maps, and the use of the latter for metallogenic studies. Regional and continental scale isotopic maps (and data) can be used to empirically and/or predictively to identify and target (either directly or indirectly by proxy) larger scale parts of mineral systems that may be indicative of, or form part of metallogenic terranes. These include demonstrable empirical relationships between mineral systems and isotopic domains, which can be extracted, tested and applied as predictive tools. Isotopic maps allow the identification of old, especially Archean, cratonic blocks, which may be metallogenically-endowed, or have other favourable characteristics. These maps also assist with identification of potentially favourable paleo-tectonic settings for mineralisation. These include: old continental margins, especially accretionary orogenic settings; and juvenile zones, either marginal or internal, which may indicate extension and possible rifting, or primitive arc crust. Such isotopic maps also aid identification of crustal breaks, which may represent major faults zones and, hence, fluid pathways for fluids and magmas, or serve to delineate natural boundaries for metallogenic terranes. Finally, isotopic maps also act as baseline maps which help to identify regions/periods characterised by greater (or lesser) magmatic, especially mantle input. Of course, in any exploration model, any analysis is predicated on using a wide range of geological, geochemical and geophysical information across a range of scales. Sm–Nd and U–Th–Pb isotopic maps are just another layer to be integrated with other data. Future work should focus on better constraining the 4D (3D plus time) evolution of the lithosphere, by integrating isotopic data with other data, as well as through better integration of available radiogenic isotopic systems, including the voluminous amounts of in situ isotopic analysis (of minerals) now available. This should result in more effective commodity targeting and exploration.