Geothermal surface alteration of basalts, Krýsuvík Iceland—Alteration mineralogy, water chemistry and the effects of acid supply on the alteration process

The geothermal surface alteration of basalts and associated water chemistry at Krýsuvík, SW Iceland were studied. The geothermal area was characterised with zones of intensive surface alteration, steam vents, mud pots and hot springs. The steam-heated geothermal surface waters had pH values between 1.69 and 7.67 and total dissolved solid (TDS) concentrations between 154 and 6660 ppm, with Cl and SO4 concentration decreasing and increasing with decreasing pH, respectively. Alteration mineral assemblages observed were strongly associated with the surface intensity. In areas of most intensive activity the basaltic rocks were altered to amorphous silica, anatase and pyrite with a crust of native sulphur at the surface. With decreased activity, kaolinite became important, as well as iron oxyhydroxides and oxides. On the flanks of the area montmorillonite was the predominant alteration product. Based on these observations the surface geothermal activity was divided into three groups: (1) high activity areas with active steam vents and mud pots and intensive acid leaching, (2) medium activity areas where the ground is hot, steam vents and mud pots are uncommon and the surface alteration is less intensive and (3) low activity areas on the margins of the surface geothermal activity. The primary factors influencing the steam-heated acid sulphate alteration of basalts included the redox state (oxidation front), supply of acids and pH, and the extent of reaction. The formation of iron- and sulphur-containing minerals and the respective elemental mobility depended on the redox conditions with pyrite formation under reduced conditions and goethite and/or hematite under oxidised conditions. At low pH, Ca, Mg, K and Na were mobile and leached out, whereas Fe, Ti and Al and to a large degree Si were retained in the alteration product. At higher pH values > 5 the mobility of Ca, Mg, K and Na was reduced due to the formation of clays.

Research highlights
► Acid sulphate alteration is mainly influenced by elemental source, acid supply, and the oxidation front.
► Acidity and supply of H2SO4 and the oxidation front depends on the mixing ratio of steam and oxygenated surface water.
► Alteration minerals were strongly associated with the geothermal surface activity.
► Surface waters ranged from almost pure condensed steam to pure meteoric water.