Status of the prenatal androgen hypothesis after two meta-analyses reported little support: A commentary

Evolutionary neuroandrogenic (ENA) theory asserts that the main underlying forces behind human criminality is evolutionary (in ultimate terms) and neuroandrogenic (in proximate terms). Neuroandrogenic factors primarily refer to the influence of sex hormones on brain functioning, especially both prenatal and post-pubertal testosterone. We recently reported evidence that supports the theory. Using a rather crude measure of prenatal testosterone exposure (known as the 2D:4D digit ratio), our two studies indicated that even within each sex, prenatal testosterone was significantly correlated with various forms of self-reported offending as theoretically predicted. Since these two studies were published, two meta-analyses have appeared that ostensibly provide little evidence that 2D:4D is actually predictive of criminality and associated behavior. However, we believe that both of these meta-analyses have deficiencies in terms of methodology and theory interpretation that can account for why some of their conclusions are subject to question. The present commentary identifies the deficiencies and shows how the meta-analytic findings most pertinent to criminality actually support the hypothesis that prenatal testosterone is a significant contributor to variations in criminal behavior.