Mechanism of toxicity and transformation of silver nanoparticles: Inclusive assessment in earthworm-microbe-soil-plant system

Long term and inclusive toxicity studies encompassing soil, plants, and organisms are rare in literature for AgNPs. This study examines AgNP behavior in soil-plant system through 72 weeks long soil experiment, earthworm response, and plant metabolic analysis. AgNP exposed earthworms did not show reproductive failure; yet high oxidative stress and reduced protein synthesis led to significant weight loss. Such stress was highest with AgNP50 exposure. Correspondingly, the 50 ppm exposure of AgNP was capable to reduce nutrient availability and microbial growth in soil. Contrary to previous reports, we demonstrated that dissolution rate of AgNP increased with time in soil. Dynamic Light Scattering and UV-VIS assessments exhibited concentration and time dependent agglomeration of AgNP in soil and aqueous media. Moreover, lab based experiments in aqueous medium revealed that significant reduction in silver availability was due to formation of Ag2S or Ag3PO4; which also greatly affected the P and S availability. Although the vegetative growth of tomato was normal, AgNP (10 mg kg− 1) treatment markedly upset the fruit yield. The 10 mg kg− 1 AgNP exposure significantly enhanced oxidative stress and Ag uptake in plants; consequently, retarded N-assimilating enzyme (glutamate synthase, glutamine synthetase, and nitrate reductase) activity by suppressing their genes in plants. Eventually, photosynthesis and CO2 assimilating efficiency were severely disrupted. These assays were vital to appreciate the true toxicity and are not well attended in most of the studies with AgNPs.